Kusari Gusoku (鎖具足) - Japanese Mail Armor
Kusari Gusoku (鎖具足) - Japanese Mail Armor
A samurai deflecting arrows, wearing a typical Japanese Mail armor set (kusari katabira - 鎖帷子 ) an ukiyo-e by T.Yoshitoshi (月岡 芳年)
Japanese Mail armor, or Kusari Gusoku, is a quite complicated topic. Japanese armorers developed the highest number of mail combinations in the world, using different types of rings and patterns for defensive purpose, but also for decoration. In this article I'll try to give you a complete overview on the subject.
HISTORY AND USAGE FROM HEAIN TO EDO PERIOD
The use of this type of armor is rather "odd". Although is possible that mail armor (commonly known as "chain mail": rings connected to each others which forms a dense wave similar to cloth ) was know and use since the early Heain period, we lack surviving examples.
In the Heike monogatari (平家物語) we read the term "Kusari haramaki" (鎖腹巻) which roughly means "mail breastplates" and we actually see in the Heiji Monogatari Emaki a Kusari Shikoro made with plates and rings patterns.
It is possible that the Kusari haramaki interpretation was actually a forerunner of the Karuta and Kikko armor types, where plates were connected by mail; although there are some later (Edo period) full mail "breast plates" types of armor, connecting plates was the main role of mail until the late Muromachi Period.
The Kusari Shikoro made of plates and mail armor, Heiji Monogatari Emaki (平治物語絵巻) detail
Instead of being used as a standalone defense like in western Europe, mail armor was relegated as a form of "secondary armor".
This might have something to do with the amount of missiles exchanges in the Japanese battlefields ( the bow was the primary weapon for every mounted warriors): with a huge generalization we could say that on average, lamellar armor and plates are better against bows than mail.However the prevalence of lamellar over mail as main type of armor is not a surprise since the former was the "foundation" of armor in Japan, given the influences from China.
In the Kamakura (鎌倉時代) and early Muromachi (室町時代) periods, the use of mail armor increased as more armor components were worn by warriors. Mail could be found on Kote, extending to the fingertips, but also on Haidate, where plates were again connected by rings patterns.
In the 14th century book Taiheiki (太平記) the term "Kusari" is used to describe to the armor worn under the Oyoroi and Doumaru of the wealthy Samurai to cover the gaps of the harness.
The Taiheiki also mentions again "Kusari Haramaki" and "Kusari Zukin" (鎖頭巾) , the Japanese version of mail coif, but is not clear if they were actually made only of mail or if they were used mixed with plates.
Ashikaga Takauji (足利 尊氏) wearing haidate of plates and mail.
In the late 14th century, we read in the Meitoku (明徳記) that mail armor was used to protect war horses too.
From the late Muromachi and during the Azuchi Momomayama period (安土桃山時代) a new phase for mail armor begun.
It was used even more on Kote, Haidate and Suneate. A new type of mail was introduced by the Europeans and new models of "Sangu" (三具 - Haidate, Kote and Suneate could be refered as Sangu) armor were developed, sometimes entirely made of mail or with an higher prevalence of mail patterns instead of plates, like the Oda Gote or the Koshino Haidate.
On the left Oda-gote (小田籠手) made of mail and gourd shaped plates, on the right Kusari Suneate (鎖脛当) with Ikada (筏金) plates
Mail was also used to connect the Kusazuri to the Dou, as armor on the Manchira, sometimes it was used instead of a laced Tare to protect the throat, on Kogake and as plate's connector on Tatami Armor (karuta and kikko armor).
The value of mail as a light, flexible and protective defense increased during the times of the "Warring States", especially among the lower rank soldiers.
But is with the long Edo Period (江戸時代) that mail armor saw its golden age in Japan. And again it is quite "odd" since mail started to be completely replaced or discarded all over the world during the 17th and 18th centuries, while in Japan this type of armor started to be used as a standalone defense.
However is easy to understand this exception to the rule:
With the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan saw a long and extensive period of peace, where battles and wars suddenly disappeared from the lives of the Bushi.
So the major threats one could have excepted while travelling or while living is daily life came from swords, knives and dirks rather than heavy polearms, bows or arquebus. Mail armor was light to wear, easy to store, and could have been concealed under clothes to gain advantages against an opponent; for these reasons, mail armor started to be used as a form of primary armor.
It was quite the norm for a Samurai to have a full mail set (from head to toe) under the kimono, and policemen were almost always equipped with mail coif, shirt, greaves and gloves.
A famous photo of the late Edo period depicting Samurai wearing full Mail armors. Even if it's mostly mail, sometimes it was still reinforced with plates.
Mail was also used as a form of decoration to embellish the "decorative armors" worn by the Samurai during the Daimyou Gyoretsu (大名行列) procession.
So both for practical and decorative reason, the majority of mail patterns and rings types were developed and used during this period. And this is why often in Ukiyo-e warriors are depicted with mail armor covered with ordinary clothes, like in the "47 Ronin" series of Yoshitoshi. Mail along with traditional armor was still used during the Boshin war and the Satsuma rebellion.
Seichu gishi den, one of the 47 ronin wearing mail an kikko armor, by U. Kuniyoshi (歌川 國芳)
MATERIAL USED
The material used most of the time were Iron and steel, with a carbon content raging between 0.10% to 0.40%* but during the Edo period brass was also used; this material didn't need lacquer to prevent rust, while iron and steel were always lacquered, usually in black but also red and other traditional lacquer's colors.
This not only protect the material from environment's damages, but it also reinforced the patterns, acting as a glue and increasing the thickness of the rings. In addition to that, mail was always stitched to a cloth foundation or to a backing of leather.
There were usually three layers of textiles: an outer layer of silk, leather or hemp, a second layer of strong coarse hemp and finally an inner layer of hemp again. Sometimes in between these layers cotton or silk floss were used to gain padding.
The thickness of the lining could vary, but usually the armor itself was already worn over other layers of clothes.
This solution reinforced the pattern and added an additional defense against weapons.
Sometimes an additional layer of hemp or silk was used to cover the mail and hide the armor (Mawashi Kusari - 廻鎖 ).
It is also possible that the armor was "spring tempered", at least the highest quality one. We lack direct scientific data so take this with a pinch of salt, since the analysis of Japanese armor are already low in numbers and there is only one in Japanese* talking specifically about Kusari; anyway, I will have soon a dedicated post about the metallurgy of Japanese arms and armors.
However, one of the most valuable collectors in the field of Japanese mail armor did some test on an antique armor piece (probably Edo) and these are his words:
"[...]when closely examined you can see the butted ends are touching, when I attempt to pull the ends of a link apart I found it almost impossible, using small metal tools. I applied pressure in opposite directions but I was unable to bend the wire and when released the link returned to its original shape with the ends of the link still touching. I think the wire has to be some sort of steel, to deform the link I would have had to apply an enormous amount of pressure. [...]"
Also, the "A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor: in All Countries and in All Times " by G. Cameron Stone mentions Japanese mail to be "hardened" to justify the fact that most of Japanese mail was butted, (although the author doesn't give any other details on the subject).
The rings were stout, thick and usually smaller compared to other mail armor. They were punched out from solid plates, made from wires winded around a cylinder and then split or made from two wires coiled around each other.
TYPES OF RINGS USED
The rings used could be categorized in two types: primary or central rings, maru-wa (丸輪), and secondary or lateral rings called hishi wa (菱輪) (or hitsu wa).
A samurai deflecting arrows, wearing a typical Japanese Mail armor set (kusari katabira - 鎖帷子 ) an ukiyo-e by T.Yoshitoshi (月岡 芳年)
Japanese Mail armor, or Kusari Gusoku, is a quite complicated topic. Japanese armorers developed the highest number of mail combinations in the world, using different types of rings and patterns for defensive purpose, but also for decoration. In this article I'll try to give you a complete overview on the subject.
HISTORY AND USAGE FROM HEAIN TO EDO PERIOD
The use of this type of armor is rather "odd". Although is possible that mail armor (commonly known as "chain mail": rings connected to each others which forms a dense wave similar to cloth ) was know and use since the early Heain period, we lack surviving examples.
In the Heike monogatari (平家物語) we read the term "Kusari haramaki" (鎖腹巻) which roughly means "mail breastplates" and we actually see in the Heiji Monogatari Emaki a Kusari Shikoro made with plates and rings patterns.
It is possible that the Kusari haramaki interpretation was actually a forerunner of the Karuta and Kikko armor types, where plates were connected by mail; although there are some later (Edo period) full mail "breast plates" types of armor, connecting plates was the main role of mail until the late Muromachi Period.
In the Heike monogatari (平家物語) we read the term "Kusari haramaki" (鎖腹巻) which roughly means "mail breastplates" and we actually see in the Heiji Monogatari Emaki a Kusari Shikoro made with plates and rings patterns.
It is possible that the Kusari haramaki interpretation was actually a forerunner of the Karuta and Kikko armor types, where plates were connected by mail; although there are some later (Edo period) full mail "breast plates" types of armor, connecting plates was the main role of mail until the late Muromachi Period.
The Kusari Shikoro made of plates and mail armor, Heiji Monogatari Emaki (平治物語絵巻) detail
Instead of being used as a standalone defense like in western Europe, mail armor was relegated as a form of "secondary armor".
This might have something to do with the amount of missiles exchanges in the Japanese battlefields ( the bow was the primary weapon for every mounted warriors): with a huge generalization we could say that on average, lamellar armor and plates are better against bows than mail.However the prevalence of lamellar over mail as main type of armor is not a surprise since the former was the "foundation" of armor in Japan, given the influences from China.
In the Kamakura (鎌倉時代) and early Muromachi (室町時代) periods, the use of mail armor increased as more armor components were worn by warriors. Mail could be found on Kote, extending to the fingertips, but also on Haidate, where plates were again connected by rings patterns.
In the 14th century book Taiheiki (太平記) the term "Kusari" is used to describe to the armor worn under the Oyoroi and Doumaru of the wealthy Samurai to cover the gaps of the harness.
The Taiheiki also mentions again "Kusari Haramaki" and "Kusari Zukin" (鎖頭巾) , the Japanese version of mail coif, but is not clear if they were actually made only of mail or if they were used mixed with plates.
Ashikaga Takauji (足利 尊氏) wearing haidate of plates and mail.
In the late 14th century, we read in the Meitoku (明徳記) that mail armor was used to protect war horses too.
From the late Muromachi and during the Azuchi Momomayama period (安土桃山時代) a new phase for mail armor begun.
It was used even more on Kote, Haidate and Suneate. A new type of mail was introduced by the Europeans and new models of "Sangu" (三具 - Haidate, Kote and Suneate could be refered as Sangu) armor were developed, sometimes entirely made of mail or with an higher prevalence of mail patterns instead of plates, like the Oda Gote or the Koshino Haidate.
Mail was also used to connect the Kusazuri to the Dou, as armor on the Manchira, sometimes it was used instead of a laced Tare to protect the throat, on Kogake and as plate's connector on Tatami Armor (karuta and kikko armor).
The value of mail as a light, flexible and protective defense increased during the times of the "Warring States", especially among the lower rank soldiers.
From the late Muromachi and during the Azuchi Momomayama period (安土桃山時代) a new phase for mail armor begun.
It was used even more on Kote, Haidate and Suneate. A new type of mail was introduced by the Europeans and new models of "Sangu" (三具 - Haidate, Kote and Suneate could be refered as Sangu) armor were developed, sometimes entirely made of mail or with an higher prevalence of mail patterns instead of plates, like the Oda Gote or the Koshino Haidate.
On the left Oda-gote (小田籠手) made of mail and gourd shaped plates, on the right Kusari Suneate (鎖脛当) with Ikada (筏金) plates
Mail was also used to connect the Kusazuri to the Dou, as armor on the Manchira, sometimes it was used instead of a laced Tare to protect the throat, on Kogake and as plate's connector on Tatami Armor (karuta and kikko armor).
The value of mail as a light, flexible and protective defense increased during the times of the "Warring States", especially among the lower rank soldiers.
But is with the long Edo Period (江戸時代) that mail armor saw its golden age in Japan. And again it is quite "odd" since mail started to be completely replaced or discarded all over the world during the 17th and 18th centuries, while in Japan this type of armor started to be used as a standalone defense.
However is easy to understand this exception to the rule:
With the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan saw a long and extensive period of peace, where battles and wars suddenly disappeared from the lives of the Bushi.
So the major threats one could have excepted while travelling or while living is daily life came from swords, knives and dirks rather than heavy polearms, bows or arquebus. Mail armor was light to wear, easy to store, and could have been concealed under clothes to gain advantages against an opponent; for these reasons, mail armor started to be used as a form of primary armor.
It was quite the norm for a Samurai to have a full mail set (from head to toe) under the kimono, and policemen were almost always equipped with mail coif, shirt, greaves and gloves.
A famous photo of the late Edo period depicting Samurai wearing full Mail armors. Even if it's mostly mail, sometimes it was still reinforced with plates.
Mail was also used as a form of decoration to embellish the "decorative armors" worn by the Samurai during the Daimyou Gyoretsu (大名行列) procession.
So both for practical and decorative reason, the majority of mail patterns and rings types were developed and used during this period. And this is why often in Ukiyo-e warriors are depicted with mail armor covered with ordinary clothes, like in the "47 Ronin" series of Yoshitoshi. Mail along with traditional armor was still used during the Boshin war and the Satsuma rebellion.
Seichu gishi den, one of the 47 ronin wearing mail an kikko armor, by U. Kuniyoshi (歌川 國芳)
MATERIAL USED
The material used most of the time were Iron and steel, with a carbon content raging between 0.10% to 0.40%* but during the Edo period brass was also used; this material didn't need lacquer to prevent rust, while iron and steel were always lacquered, usually in black but also red and other traditional lacquer's colors.
This not only protect the material from environment's damages, but it also reinforced the patterns, acting as a glue and increasing the thickness of the rings. In addition to that, mail was always stitched to a cloth foundation or to a backing of leather.
There were usually three layers of textiles: an outer layer of silk, leather or hemp, a second layer of strong coarse hemp and finally an inner layer of hemp again. Sometimes in between these layers cotton or silk floss were used to gain padding.
The thickness of the lining could vary, but usually the armor itself was already worn over other layers of clothes.
This solution reinforced the pattern and added an additional defense against weapons.
Sometimes an additional layer of hemp or silk was used to cover the mail and hide the armor (Mawashi Kusari - 廻鎖 ).
It is also possible that the armor was "spring tempered", at least the highest quality one. We lack direct scientific data so take this with a pinch of salt, since the analysis of Japanese armor are already low in numbers and there is only one in Japanese* talking specifically about Kusari; anyway, I will have soon a dedicated post about the metallurgy of Japanese arms and armors.
However, one of the most valuable collectors in the field of Japanese mail armor did some test on an antique armor piece (probably Edo) and these are his words:
"[...]when closely examined you can see the butted ends are touching, when I attempt to pull the ends of a link apart I found it almost impossible, using small metal tools. I applied pressure in opposite directions but I was unable to bend the wire and when released the link returned to its original shape with the ends of the link still touching. I think the wire has to be some sort of steel, to deform the link I would have had to apply an enormous amount of pressure. [...]"
Also, the "A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor: in All Countries and in All Times " by G. Cameron Stone mentions Japanese mail to be "hardened" to justify the fact that most of Japanese mail was butted, (although the author doesn't give any other details on the subject).
The rings were stout, thick and usually smaller compared to other mail armor. They were punched out from solid plates, made from wires winded around a cylinder and then split or made from two wires coiled around each other.
TYPES OF RINGS USED
The rings used could be categorized in two types: primary or central rings, maru-wa (丸輪), and secondary or lateral rings called hishi wa (菱輪) (or hitsu wa).
Primary rings
These are essentially the most common types of rings used worldwide, where the centre of the rings is perpendicular to the plane of the armor; the rings are rounded and stout.
From left to right we have Hamiawase (喰合せ), butted together with touching ends, Uchinuki (打貫), solid rings punched out by plates, Nanban karakuri (南蛮からくり), riveted rings and Nawame (縄目), made with two wires twisted together to form a "rope" like shapes where the two ends overlaps; the ends were welded together creating a single solid ring.
Secondary rings
These were used to connect other primary rings in the "Japanese arrangement". They are smaller and thinner compared to primary rings, and are usually lozenge or angular shapes; the centre of the ring is parallel to the plain of the armor. They act as metals connector between each rings.
The grey rings are the secondary rings
From left to right; the most basic is the normal Hishi wa, with no overlaps, then we have Shimegaeshi ( 締返し) were the wire has one end bent over the other to create an overlapping, like modern key rings, and increasing the strength of the ring. If the overlapped is tripled, the term Seirou (蒸籠) could be used.
ARRANGEMENTS AND VARIETIES OF MAIL
With all of these types of rings, is easy to see how many combinations could be used. I'll try my best to make a clear and schematic order to show you the various way of linking the rings.
Primary and secondary rings linked together:
- Hitoe-gusari (一重鎖):
This is the most basic and old pattern of Japanese mail; there is a central ring, generally speaking a Hamiawase, connected with other four Hishiwa. This pattern is also called Japanese 4 in 1 and is not particularly strong.
- Futae-gusari (二重鎖):
Here Shimegeashi (double) rings are used instead of basic Hishiwa. It said that type of mail originated in the Sengouku Period. Sometimes, the central ring used was of solid type, Uchinuki. This is a strong type of mail, really common during the warfare periods.
- Seirou-gusari (蒸籠鎖) or Raden-gusari (螺鈿鎖):
Is essentially the same pattern as before but with Seiro (tripled) rings instead of Shimegaeshi. It is heavy and strong. Sometimes even the central rings could be tripled or doubled. It wasn't recommended due to its weight and probably was created during the Edo period.
- Hana-gusari (花鎖):
Here instead of 4 secondary links there are 6 of them; it is the so called Japanese 6 in 1 mail. The central rings could be Hamiawase (butted), Karakuri (riveted) or Uchinuki (solid) while the secondary rings could be Hishiawase or Shiegaeshi (doubled). It is heavy, strong and really dense, it was probably developed during the Edo Period in the Kaga region; it wasn't recommended to actual use due to the weight.
- Kikko-gusari (亀甲鎖):
Here three secondary links are used instead of four, and "kikko" patterns were created. It was one of those decorative patterns developed during the Edo period, not intended for actual use.
- Kagome-gata-gusari (籠目形鎖):
It easier to see it rather than to describe it; similar to kikko gusari but it is more complicated, it was developed in the Kaga region and it is again a decorative pattern.
Primary rings only linked together:
-Yae (八重) or Nami (波) or Nanban-gusari (南蛮鎖):
Despite the various name this is essentially the European 4 in 1 type of mail. It was probably introduced during the mid 16th century by the Europeans but is not clear if the armors were Indian, Chinese or European made, since all of this culture used the same
pattern.
However, a recent finding has challenged this view; in fact, a kote dated late 14th- early 15th century found in Kamkura had a 4 in 1 pattern of mail armor; dating was relatively easy because said style with the typical "D" shaped teko (namazu teko) wasn't used anymore in the 15th century.
The aforementioned kote preserved at Kamakura. See the 4 in 1 mail, already in use at least in the 15th century.
This means that said style of mail was known before the arrival of the European, but it might have not been common at all. Moreover, I wasn't able to establish if it was riveted or not.
There are several variations due to the various combination used:
- Chirimen Nanban (縮緬南蛮): Dense and small-rings European 4 in 1 mail in a fine mesh. The rings are usually Hamiawase (butted) and it was the most common sub-type used. Sometimes even 8 in 1 is used although it is quite rare
- Nawame (縄目) or Taga (𥶡) Nanban: 4 in 1 with Nawame rings; it was probably the strongest type of mail since two wires were used and overlapped to create a single links with no potential failure point like a rivet or the butted ends; in fact the ends were welded together. Sometimes Japanese 4 in 1 was used with doubled rings. However it was rare, heavy and incredibly long to make. It was probably made in the Edo period.
- Namban karakuri (南蛮からくり): 4 in 1 riveted mail; the rings were tinned and were stout and sharp. It's invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, an armorer active during the last part of the 16th century, and it was copied from foreign models; although it was imported by the European traders, the rivets used were doomed, like the ones used in Indian mail. It is in fact highly possible that the foreign models copied were Indian made, since they actually used tinned rings and doomed rivets.
Please be aware that those combinations are the "canonical" ones, which were studied by Sakakibara Kozan in the 18th century and later on by Yamagami in the last century. The two texts aren't always concordant and there are a lot of weird styles that didn't fit inside those styles. In addition to that, inside the same armor you could find some of these styles mixed together.
I didn't mention the so called Chigiri-gusari pattern since it doesn't fit inside the previous classification, due to the fact that wires instead of rings were used to create patterns and also because it was extremely rare.
MAIL PATTERNS
Each arrangements was then used in several ways, with so many combinations that I don't think might be helpful trying to describes given the number of exceptions;
If the mail covers completely the spot, it is called So-gusari (総鎖) and it is essentially the most classical interpretation of armor: full mail with no gaps. The spaces in between the rings could vary a lot, the closest they are, the better they perform ( at the cost of having an heavier armor).
If the mail has squared holes in the mesh, where two or three rows of mail are connected crosswise, to allow better flexibility, avoid hindrances caused by a compression of the pattern (like a flexion of the arm) and reduce the weight, it is called Koushi-gusari (格子鎖). It usually found inside the joint of the lower arms on the Kote or on the waist area of Kusari Katabira.
If the mail is used to connect plates (which was the main role of this type of armor until the late 16th century) the name Dandan-gusari (段々鎖) is used. There are several combinations in which Dandan-gusari could be used which don't have a specific name, and is definitely the most common configuration. It is found almost everywhere.
Various type of Dandan Gusari interpretation
CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL THOUGHTS
With this long article I've tried to give you a deep overview of the role, use and structure of Japanese mail armor.
One of the most controversial aspect is the fact that the Japanese didn't use only riveted rings and the so called European 4 in 1 pattern ( which was introduced later on the Island and never seems to be the most used ones) but they actually used butted rings and weird types of arrangements.
So, was it actually effective?
I cannot speak directly for the strength and functionality of this type of mail armor, or give you a direct comparison to the classical European riveted mail due to the lack of proper testing on the subject.
But we have logic and history to try to speculate and give an answer;
Even when the Japanese saw European riveted mail, they adopted butted rings instead of riveted ones most of the time, and they never switched completely to this pattern.
Butted mail rings, all else being equal, are much weaker compared to riveted ones especially against thrust. However, the best rings employed by the Japanese were small, stout, lacquered, sewn to a cloth foundation in a dense mesh, and possible even spring tempered.
A really fine mesh of Futae Kusari on a pair of Kote
Unlike with Arquebus firearms, which were likely copied from European models ( this is a topic for another article ) we don't see the same degree of integration within the Japanese military technology, so it is highly possible that the native models used during that period were actually effective, at least to some degree; and is also worth notice that to produce the European pattern a skilled craftsmen need less time compared to every Japanese native patterns, especially if the 4 in 1 is butted.
On the other hand, we do know that mail was rarely used as a form of standalone defense on the battlefield, it was usually placed to protect limbs or non-vital body parts, and it was also mixed with plates most of the times. It is arguable that the Futae mail with solid and doubled rings might hold well against weapons as much as riveted ones, even when using other "weaker" styles of mails, the potential damage would have been limited to the limbs or non vital body area.
Mail armor makes the wearer invulnerable against cut of any type of sword, and could give some degree of protection against thrust ( but against arrows, or heavy polearms usually fails to prevent penetration); however it won't protect against heavy blows and blunt trauma force.
Although quite unique, Japanese mail seems to have offered reasonable protection against cut, but not against heavy energy thrust or blows, that could bypass the armor or break bones underneath.
Thank you for reaching the end of this incredibly long and technical article; if you liked feel free to share it and if you have any questions just ask under here!
Gunbai
Primary rings
These are essentially the most common types of rings used worldwide, where the centre of the rings is perpendicular to the plane of the armor; the rings are rounded and stout.
From left to right we have Hamiawase (喰合せ), butted together with touching ends, Uchinuki (打貫), solid rings punched out by plates, Nanban karakuri (南蛮からくり), riveted rings and Nawame (縄目), made with two wires twisted together to form a "rope" like shapes where the two ends overlaps; the ends were welded together creating a single solid ring.
These are essentially the most common types of rings used worldwide, where the centre of the rings is perpendicular to the plane of the armor; the rings are rounded and stout.
From left to right we have Hamiawase (喰合せ), butted together with touching ends, Uchinuki (打貫), solid rings punched out by plates, Nanban karakuri (南蛮からくり), riveted rings and Nawame (縄目), made with two wires twisted together to form a "rope" like shapes where the two ends overlaps; the ends were welded together creating a single solid ring.
Secondary rings
These were used to connect other primary rings in the "Japanese arrangement". They are smaller and thinner compared to primary rings, and are usually lozenge or angular shapes; the centre of the ring is parallel to the plain of the armor. They act as metals connector between each rings.
The grey rings are the secondary rings
From left to right; the most basic is the normal Hishi wa, with no overlaps, then we have Shimegaeshi ( 締返し) were the wire has one end bent over the other to create an overlapping, like modern key rings, and increasing the strength of the ring. If the overlapped is tripled, the term Seirou (蒸籠) could be used.
ARRANGEMENTS AND VARIETIES OF MAIL
With all of these types of rings, is easy to see how many combinations could be used. I'll try my best to make a clear and schematic order to show you the various way of linking the rings.
Primary and secondary rings linked together:
- Hitoe-gusari (一重鎖):
This is the most basic and old pattern of Japanese mail; there is a central ring, generally speaking a Hamiawase, connected with other four Hishiwa. This pattern is also called Japanese 4 in 1 and is not particularly strong.
This is the most basic and old pattern of Japanese mail; there is a central ring, generally speaking a Hamiawase, connected with other four Hishiwa. This pattern is also called Japanese 4 in 1 and is not particularly strong.
Here Shimegeashi (double) rings are used instead of basic Hishiwa. It said that type of mail originated in the Sengouku Period. Sometimes, the central ring used was of solid type, Uchinuki. This is a strong type of mail, really common during the warfare periods.
- Seirou-gusari (蒸籠鎖) or Raden-gusari (螺鈿鎖):
Is essentially the same pattern as before but with Seiro (tripled) rings instead of Shimegaeshi. It is heavy and strong. Sometimes even the central rings could be tripled or doubled. It wasn't recommended due to its weight and probably was created during the Edo period.
- Hana-gusari (花鎖):
- Hana-gusari (花鎖):
Here instead of 4 secondary links there are 6 of them; it is the so called Japanese 6 in 1 mail. The central rings could be Hamiawase (butted), Karakuri (riveted) or Uchinuki (solid) while the secondary rings could be Hishiawase or Shiegaeshi (doubled). It is heavy, strong and really dense, it was probably developed during the Edo Period in the Kaga region; it wasn't recommended to actual use due to the weight.
- Kikko-gusari (亀甲鎖):
Here three secondary links are used instead of four, and "kikko" patterns were created. It was one of those decorative patterns developed during the Edo period, not intended for actual use.
- Kagome-gata-gusari (籠目形鎖):
- Kagome-gata-gusari (籠目形鎖):
It easier to see it rather than to describe it; similar to kikko gusari but it is more complicated, it was developed in the Kaga region and it is again a decorative pattern.
Primary rings only linked together:
Primary rings only linked together:
-Yae (八重) or Nami (波) or Nanban-gusari (南蛮鎖):
Despite the various name this is essentially the European 4 in 1 type of mail. It was probably introduced during the mid 16th century by the Europeans but is not clear if the armors were Indian, Chinese or European made, since all of this culture used the same
pattern. However, a recent finding has challenged this view; in fact, a kote dated late 14th- early 15th century found in Kamkura had a 4 in 1 pattern of mail armor; dating was relatively easy because said style with the typical "D" shaped teko (namazu teko) wasn't used anymore in the 15th century.
The aforementioned kote preserved at Kamakura. See the 4 in 1 mail, already in use at least in the 15th century.
This means that said style of mail was known before the arrival of the European, but it might have not been common at all. Moreover, I wasn't able to establish if it was riveted or not.
There are several variations due to the various combination used:
- Chirimen Nanban (縮緬南蛮): Dense and small-rings European 4 in 1 mail in a fine mesh. The rings are usually Hamiawase (butted) and it was the most common sub-type used. Sometimes even 8 in 1 is used although it is quite rare
- Nawame (縄目) or Taga (𥶡) Nanban: 4 in 1 with Nawame rings; it was probably the strongest type of mail since two wires were used and overlapped to create a single links with no potential failure point like a rivet or the butted ends; in fact the ends were welded together. Sometimes Japanese 4 in 1 was used with doubled rings. However it was rare, heavy and incredibly long to make. It was probably made in the Edo period.
- Namban karakuri (南蛮からくり): 4 in 1 riveted mail; the rings were tinned and were stout and sharp. It's invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, an armorer active during the last part of the 16th century, and it was copied from foreign models; although it was imported by the European traders, the rivets used were doomed, like the ones used in Indian mail. It is in fact highly possible that the foreign models copied were Indian made, since they actually used tinned rings and doomed rivets.
Please be aware that those combinations are the "canonical" ones, which were studied by Sakakibara Kozan in the 18th century and later on by Yamagami in the last century. The two texts aren't always concordant and there are a lot of weird styles that didn't fit inside those styles. In addition to that, inside the same armor you could find some of these styles mixed together.
I didn't mention the so called Chigiri-gusari pattern since it doesn't fit inside the previous classification, due to the fact that wires instead of rings were used to create patterns and also because it was extremely rare.
I didn't mention the so called Chigiri-gusari pattern since it doesn't fit inside the previous classification, due to the fact that wires instead of rings were used to create patterns and also because it was extremely rare.
MAIL PATTERNS
Each arrangements was then used in several ways, with so many combinations that I don't think might be helpful trying to describes given the number of exceptions;
If the mail covers completely the spot, it is called So-gusari (総鎖) and it is essentially the most classical interpretation of armor: full mail with no gaps. The spaces in between the rings could vary a lot, the closest they are, the better they perform ( at the cost of having an heavier armor).
If the mail has squared holes in the mesh, where two or three rows of mail are connected crosswise, to allow better flexibility, avoid hindrances caused by a compression of the pattern (like a flexion of the arm) and reduce the weight, it is called Koushi-gusari (格子鎖). It usually found inside the joint of the lower arms on the Kote or on the waist area of Kusari Katabira.
If the mail covers completely the spot, it is called So-gusari (総鎖) and it is essentially the most classical interpretation of armor: full mail with no gaps. The spaces in between the rings could vary a lot, the closest they are, the better they perform ( at the cost of having an heavier armor).
If the mail has squared holes in the mesh, where two or three rows of mail are connected crosswise, to allow better flexibility, avoid hindrances caused by a compression of the pattern (like a flexion of the arm) and reduce the weight, it is called Koushi-gusari (格子鎖). It usually found inside the joint of the lower arms on the Kote or on the waist area of Kusari Katabira.
If the mail is used to connect plates (which was the main role of this type of armor until the late 16th century) the name Dandan-gusari (段々鎖) is used. There are several combinations in which Dandan-gusari could be used which don't have a specific name, and is definitely the most common configuration. It is found almost everywhere.
Various type of Dandan Gusari interpretation
CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL THOUGHTS
With this long article I've tried to give you a deep overview of the role, use and structure of Japanese mail armor.
One of the most controversial aspect is the fact that the Japanese didn't use only riveted rings and the so called European 4 in 1 pattern ( which was introduced later on the Island and never seems to be the most used ones) but they actually used butted rings and weird types of arrangements.
So, was it actually effective?
I cannot speak directly for the strength and functionality of this type of mail armor, or give you a direct comparison to the classical European riveted mail due to the lack of proper testing on the subject.
But we have logic and history to try to speculate and give an answer;
One of the most controversial aspect is the fact that the Japanese didn't use only riveted rings and the so called European 4 in 1 pattern ( which was introduced later on the Island and never seems to be the most used ones) but they actually used butted rings and weird types of arrangements.
So, was it actually effective?
I cannot speak directly for the strength and functionality of this type of mail armor, or give you a direct comparison to the classical European riveted mail due to the lack of proper testing on the subject.
But we have logic and history to try to speculate and give an answer;
Even when the Japanese saw European riveted mail, they adopted butted rings instead of riveted ones most of the time, and they never switched completely to this pattern.
Butted mail rings, all else being equal, are much weaker compared to riveted ones especially against thrust. However, the best rings employed by the Japanese were small, stout, lacquered, sewn to a cloth foundation in a dense mesh, and possible even spring tempered.
Butted mail rings, all else being equal, are much weaker compared to riveted ones especially against thrust. However, the best rings employed by the Japanese were small, stout, lacquered, sewn to a cloth foundation in a dense mesh, and possible even spring tempered.
A really fine mesh of Futae Kusari on a pair of Kote
Unlike with Arquebus firearms, which were likely copied from European models ( this is a topic for another article ) we don't see the same degree of integration within the Japanese military technology, so it is highly possible that the native models used during that period were actually effective, at least to some degree; and is also worth notice that to produce the European pattern a skilled craftsmen need less time compared to every Japanese native patterns, especially if the 4 in 1 is butted.
On the other hand, we do know that mail was rarely used as a form of standalone defense on the battlefield, it was usually placed to protect limbs or non-vital body parts, and it was also mixed with plates most of the times. It is arguable that the Futae mail with solid and doubled rings might hold well against weapons as much as riveted ones, even when using other "weaker" styles of mails, the potential damage would have been limited to the limbs or non vital body area.
Mail armor makes the wearer invulnerable against cut of any type of sword, and could give some degree of protection against thrust ( but against arrows, or heavy polearms usually fails to prevent penetration); however it won't protect against heavy blows and blunt trauma force.
Although quite unique, Japanese mail seems to have offered reasonable protection against cut, but not against heavy energy thrust or blows, that could bypass the armor or break bones underneath.
Thank you for reaching the end of this incredibly long and technical article; if you liked feel free to share it and if you have any questions just ask under here!
Gunbai
Nice article, if you going to talk about guns later on,I think you might be interested in this if you have not read it https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://publications.nichibun.ac.jp/region/d/NSH/series/symp/2007-06-00/s001/s009/pdf/article.pdf&ved=0ahUKEwiR4fep79XXAhXxQt8KHTqjAcA4ChAWCCUwAA&usg=AOvVaw3kJjbFqMZeuoZoik4aazJK it talks about early firearms in Japan also mention something I did not know the story of the Portuguese arriving in 1543 was written in 1607 more than 60 years after the event, by the way if you have time for a discussion I have a few questions and I found some stuff,I think you may be interested if you don't mind of course
ReplyDeleteI'm glad you liked the article and thank you for sharing your sources! Yes I have plenty of time for this kind of discussion =) Feel free to write me at: gunsen.military.history@gmail.com
DeleteInteresting little comment I found on one of metatron's old videos I can't say it's 100% correct but I think I should be interested in it since it talks about mail, "A few corrections. Japan had Riveted Mail before their introduction to the Portuguese and Spanish. They actually had it in use since the 12th-13th Century as they first saw it in use with the Mongolians and later from Korea. There has been finds of it in Japan.
ReplyDeleteThe main reason it was far more rare than the Nanban version was that it required the use of ほちょてつ (Hocho-tetsu) which was a low carbon steel and a product of the tatara smelting. There were also bronze versions of it as it seems to have been easier to make over the iron/steel version since they found pure iron was more likely to break or snap due to the hammering process. Not to mention it took far longer to produce over butted mail, and when you're trying to mass produce it for the kachi and ashigaru going to war you look for ways to mass produce it. There has been finds of the riveted mail in use with quite a few Daimyo and their hatamoto. So both are period correct with that armor since they are 15-16th century.
When they got direct copies of it from the Portuguese it became more common as it was punched out directly from iron plates making it far easier to produce and it even saw far more common usage during Hideyoshi's reign and after."
Where it say "I think I should be interested"it's supposed to say I think you would be interested, sorry I don't know what went wrong
DeleteIt is an interesting theory but as far as I am aware the findings of Japanese armors are extremely rare, especially pre 16th century Sangu components; anyway, there is this kote here: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DGywTacU0AA7wOF.jpg
DeleteIn which the Tekou is definitely pre-14th century style. However I can't tell if the mail is riveted nor if the Kote pre-date the 16th century. Hard to tell but I'll do some research and eventually update my blog! Thank you for the input!
Great article on Japanese mail!!
ReplyDeleteThank you so much, I'm glad you liked it!
DeleteI would like to point out that while there has been extensive testing on traditional European mail and butted mail, I could not find any test on Japanese mail, except for one iron moutain armory test on secondary light chain mail.
ReplyDeleteLOL. You might think that in a comparison "myth bunking" experiment, actual comparison would have been useful.
Yes indeed there no test done with "proper" Japanese mail. I would be curious to see how the welded mail could perform!
DeleteBut as far as I am aware, nobody is making traditional mail anymore so I don't see any test coming in the future, sadly.
Still, the fact that it was used during the Sengoku period may highlight the fact that it worked as intended.
Btw when I said comparison "myth bunking" experiment, I meant youtube videos with titles like: riveted mail vs samurai mail.
DeleteI by no means refer to your article.XD
By the way. What style were the secondary rings? were they all butted?
ReplyDeleteThe secondary rings, the one used to connect the main ones, were either butted or made in a "keyring" style were the ends of the wire used to make the ring overlapped twice or even 3 times in some cases.
DeleteInteresting. Did they wield the ends together? I'm curious because that would add strength without reducing weight.
DeleteI promise this will be the last time I bother you (PROABALY until your next article XD). Do you have photos of the Nawame Kusari? being the filthy casual that I am, this were the photos I found regarding twisted links, that were close enough to see.
Deletehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusari_(Japanese_mail_armour)#/media/File:Antique_Japanese_(samurai)_kusari_(chain_armor)1.JPG
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/2a/75/db/2a75dbcabc8ac58a6e885688d1077f3c.jpg
I am not sure if this is refering to the primary ring, which i can barely see and looks butted, or the secondary Shimegaeshi ring.
Don't worry; yes I have a photo luckily!
Deletehttps://m.imgur.com/gallery/yxWJj5P
Nawame gusari is very rare. You can see that all the rings are made of two wires twisted together like a rope hence the name.
The rings are also closed by welding although is hard to see.
The link doesn't seem to work.
DeleteI see, try with this one:
Deletehttps://imgur.com/FQSaZxF
Those rings are probably butted. Zooming in, it looks like the ends merely overlap each other, with no uneven thick portions that would suggest rivetting.
ReplyDeleteWell, primary rings can be either butted, punched out of plate so with no cut/gap in the material (they are solid rings), welded like or rivetted. Primary rings are also the standard rings used to make mail for example with Eu 4 in 1 mail.
DeleteSecondary rings are unique to Japan, they are oval and they are meant to connect the primary rings to each other in the 4 in 1 or 6 in 1 Japanese patterns.
They could be simply butted or key ring shaped; in the latter case the ring doesn't have to be riveted because you cannot open it unless you manage to "unfold" the overlapping - this is the same reason why key rings are hard to open; if you take a butted ring and push the two ends aside it will open but a keyring won't.
You mention spring tempering. It is strange that they would chose spring tempering over heat treatment as spring tempering allows a blade to flex, and would be more useful for swords and perhaps plate armor.
ReplyDeleteSome thing I don't see many people considering is that the rings were very small, and traditional designs would thus have more resistant to thrust than standard 4 in 1 mail.
When examining thrust oriented swords such as the estoc we find thick narrow blades designed not necessarily for mail breaking, but to slip through gaps between the rings. Such a weapon could bypass the mail without resistance. This is not the case for the fine mesh in japanese kusari weaves.
To achieve a comparable level of density with larger rings, 6 in 1 and 8 in 1 patterns would have to be used, in which case, the rings would overlap significantly more than something like a futae gusari, resulting in more weight and less flexibility.
Thrust oriented weapons could also break mail. In which case it would either have to pry the butted secondary rings apart. or puncture the primary ring. In the case the primary ring was welded or punched out, it would probably be more resilient than riveted non tempered steel rings that were employed in medieval Europe. Such mail armor is already considered to be very difficult to puncture with thrust oriented swords.
There would be greater risk of the secondary mail to be pulled apart, which may be the reason for designs such as futae gusari and seiro gusari. Considering that mail was usually between the gaps in plates and highly inaccessible regions, a suitable weapon would have to require extreme precision (such as a rapier), but considering the account of the experiment performed on a single butted ring with no overlap, it would require great force to tear apart the secondary lacquered mail and the layers of cloth backing. In which case, it is possible a single handed sword might not suffice, especially if said attack was short of a full lunge. High energy penetrating weapons such as war picks and lances would have been far more suitable, but those were already percussive anti plate weapons, and I would argue that the most effective method would be to simply inflict blunt trauma instead of attempting to break the kusari.
If you have read my long comment I thank you.
Ranged penetrating weapons might be effective as well. Perhaps why the samurai used "bodkin like"arrow heads. (which is not well known,and gives rise top several extremely annoying misconceptions regarding samurai armor and bow strength)
DeleteWell spring tempering is a form of hardening after all, but take those info with a bunch of salt; they were gave by a collector and are not backed up by a scientific metallurgical test.
DeleteIn any case you are right, top quality Japanese mail is very fine and made of small rings which are hard to bypass.
Also it is fair to point out that a lot of primary rings were still butted, and I'm quite confident that the secondary rings, being arranged in a keyring shape, would be quite hard to break.
Still, we do know that even in Japan anti mail armor existed and the majority of the wounds recorded were located in the limbs where mail was most prevalent (altough it could be said that those wounds were indeed caused by the lack of armor; only a tiny amount of warriors had the wealth to acquire a full set).
I would argue that a warpick or a spear would be much more effective against mail because if anything, plate is rigid while mail is not so the damage would be higher, even if penetration won't happen.
I'm also quite sure that the bodkin arrows ( togari ya) shot by the Yumi would pierce mail.
When I do seaching about Japan chainmail. I was found your blog regarding 鎖具足 great to know that Japan chainmail design. Nice to meet your blog.
ReplyDelete